Features of Ancient Societies: Roman Weapons and Warfare
The development of weaponry and methods of warfare, including:
- the nature of the sources for weapons and warfare
- the composition and role of armies and/or navies and changes in forms of weapons and military tactics
- the life of soldiers, their training and the conditions of service
- the significance of the military within society
- the evidence for at least ONE key military encounter, including military strategy
- the political, economic and social impact of warfare and conquest
Ancient Rome excelled in the development of weapons and military tactics. Through their ingenuity, the size of the army (comprised of both citizens [legionnaires] and non-citizens [auxiliaries]) and the strength of the commanders, the empire stretched from England to Turkey and Germany to North Africa by the end of the first century AD. Their military might was further strengthened with the continual development of siege weapons, which the Romans adopted from their Hellenistic neighbours. From the start of Roman 'wars of expansion', beginning in the late third century BC, Rome was constantly at war. Due to its importance in the development of the empire, the topic of warfare features heavily in ancient literary sources. What follows on this page is a range of primary and secondary sources relating to weapons and warfare in ancient Rome.
Photo credit: Roman Army & Chariot Experience
Wikimedia Commons
The Nature of the Sources for Weapons and Warfare
There are a number of ancient writers who comment on military battles the Roman army engaged in. Perhaps the most famous of these accounts comes from Julius Caesar, who wrote a history of his Gallic wars and the infamous civil war. Roman warfare, tactics and battles feature heavily in the ancient literary sources. For an overview of these works and more specific details on the battles mentioned, see the Lacus Curtius site on Roman military history. For the surviving archaeological evidence on the different types of Roman weapons and armour see the list of resources below.
- News media article by J. Rogers, "Roman swords unearthed at ancient cavalry barracks near Hadrian's Wall", Fox News (18 Sept 2017).
- N. Patrick, "Surviving examples of a Roman “Spatha” used in war and gladiatorial fights", The Vintage News (15 July 2016).
- Museum of Artefacts, Roman Scutum Shield. The only known surviving shield of this type.
- News media article, Rare Roman Suit of Armour Found at Caerleon Dig, BBC News (13 Sept 2010).
- E. Whelan, "Roman Weapons: Sharp Blades to Conquer the Ancient World", Ancient Origins (12 Jan 2019).
The Composition and Role of Armies and/or Navies
- Military History Visualized, Imperial Roman Army – Organisation and Structure.
- YouTube documentary on the Roman Army Structure from the Vanolanda Museum.
- M.A. Speidel, "Being a Soldier in the Roman Imperial Army – Expectations and Responses", in Le métier de soldat dans le monde romain : Actes du cinquième Congrès de Lyon (23-25 septembre 2010), (2010), pp.175-186.
The Life of the Soldiers and the Significance of the Military within Society
To be part of the Roman army you had to fulfil two main requirements: (1) you had to be a male; and (2) at least 18 years old. Once you joined the army, you served for a minimum of 25 years before you are allowed to retire. When on a campaign, you would march at least 36 kilometres in full army gear, which could weight upward of 20kgs. The majority of those in the army were from poorer families who joined the army for the guaranteed pay (about 225 denarii per annum for a legionnaire which equates to ~$930 today and 188 denarii per annum for an auxiliary which equates to ~$700 today), to lift the burden off their family and to have the prospect of rank advancement. For more on the lives and expectations of Roman soldiers, see the list of resources below.
- See information on "Pay Scales for different grades of a Roman soldier in Auxiliary units" from the website Hadrian's Wall Country, <https://hadrianswallcountry.co.uk/>
- Ancient Finances: Average Pay for Roman Legionnaire.
- T. Kirkpartick, "This was the average day for an ancient Roman soldier", We are the Mighty <www.wearethemighty.com> (11June 2018).
- Imperium Romanum: Life of a Roman Legionary.
- TedEd Video: A day in the Life of a Roman Soldier – Robert Garland.
- Military History Visualized, Imperial Roman Army – Training. This site has further links and resources on the topic of the Roman soldier.
Key Military Encounters through Roman History
There is a number of key important military encounters throughout Roman history. Below is a list of resources on some of these encounters, including the wars against Hannibal the Carthaginian, Caesar’s Gallic Wars, the Civil Wars and the First Jewish-Roman War.
The Second Punic War (218 – 201 BC)
- Ancient History Encyclopedia on the Second Punic War
- Encyclopaedia Britannica on the Second Punic War
- History Marche’s YouTube Documentary ‘Road to Rome – Hannibal and the Second Punic War’ PART 1; PART 2; PART 3; PART 4; PART 5; PART 6; PART 7.
Caesar’s Gallic Wars (58 – 51/50 BC)
- Macquarie University, Australian Centre For Ancient Numismatic Studies (ACANS), Online Exhibition, "The Gallic Wars".
- YouTube documentary by DCCommentaries on "Julius Caesar’s Art of War".
- M. Hudson, "Battle of Alesia: Ancient Roman History [52 BCE]", Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The Civil Wars (49 – 46 BC)
- Macquarie University, Australian Centre For Ancient Numismatic Studies (ACANS), Online Exhibition, "Military Triumph: The Coins of Pompey".
- M. Hudson, "Battle of Pharsalus: Ancient Roman History [48 BCE]", Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- M. Cartright, "The Battle of Pharsalus", Ancient History Encyclopedia (13 June 2014).
The First Jewish-Roman War (66 – 70 AD)
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, "First Jewish Revolt. 66-70 CE".
- YouTube Documentary by Kings and Generals, "Siege of Jerusalem 70 AD - Great Jewish Revolt".
The Political, Economic and Social Impact of Warfare and Conquest
Military victories brought political prestige and a mass amount of wealth from the pillaged lands. Caesar was said to have shared his spoils from the Gallic wars with the plebeians at Rome. Military triumphs were one of the most sought-after celebration for military commanders. With new conquered lands, wealth poured into the ancient capital as major trading ports and farming lands were incorporated into the Roman empire. However, war and conquest contributed to an increasing destabilisation of the societal aspect of Rome as the divide between citizen and non-citizen became more apparent. Below is further information on the impact of war and conquest on Roman politics, economy and society.
Political
- BBC article by M. Ibeji on "The Roman Way to Building a Career" (Feb 2011). Discusses the Roman Army as an entry point to Roman Politics.
- G. Aldrete, "The Ancient Roman Republic and its Military Might", The Great Courses Daily (18 July 2019).
- J. A. North "The Development of Roman Imperialism", The Journal of Roman Studies vol.71 (1981), pp.1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/299492. This article talks about the political, economic and social impact of war and conquest.
As a teacher (K-12), you can receive free access to six articles a month on JSTOR by registering for the site: https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115004760028-MyJSTOR-How-to-Register-Get-Free-Access-to-Content
Economic
- Khan Academny, The Roman Republic. See especially the section on "Economic Development".
- W. Scheidel, Slavery in the Roman Economy, Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics (Stanford University, 2010). Abstract: "This paper discusses the location of slavery in the Roman economy. It deals with the size and distribution of the slave population and the economics of slave labor and offers a chronological sketch of the development of Roman slavery."
Social
- Roman Expansion – The Perils of Expansion <http://brfencing.org/Rome>.
- Erenow, "Roman Values, The Family, and Religion", Ancient History & Civilisation.
- E.T. Salmon ‘The Cause of the Social War’, Phoenix vol.16 no.2 (1962), pp.107-119.
As a teacher (K-12), you can receive free access to six articles a month on JSTOR by registering for the site: https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115004760028-MyJSTOR-How-to-Register-Get-Free-Access-to-Content